Improve Third Grade Constructive Response

Introduction Constructed response items in WKCE exams usually involve open-ended questions whose answers are supposed to be a small paragraph or several sentences. They are used in determining the level at which students engage their cognitive skills and content knowledge.Advertising We will write a custom coursework sample on Improve Third Grade Constructive Response specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Contrary to popular belief, they are not intended to elicit opinion from students. Additionally, these questions use real world examples besides the primary and secondary stimuli in testing students (Paris Stahl, 2005, p. 137). The stimuli may include graphs, maps, and animations. These questions differ from multiple choice questions in that, students are supposed to apply thinking skills to generate their own answers. Constructed response items help examiners to gauge student thinking to determine if they have capabilities beyond mu ltiple-choice questions. More often than not, students tend to memorize information that can be applied in CR questions. Sometimes, they simply restate the information as it appears in books or any other academic sources. This goes against their primary intention of requiring students to apply their knowledge in answering questions. The questions are designed to stimulate students in higher-level thinking. This includes information synthesis, generalization making, evaluation of different points of view, identification of patterns and drawing comparisons between different phenomena (Alderson, 2000, p. 86). Additionally, they are used to engage students to identify different patterns or various conflicting points of view, categorize, or sum up information, construct figures such as charts and graphs from given data and to draw conclusions through explanations and predictions. A good number of students who take the WKCE exam perform poorly not because they are stupid but because they have not been taken through the process of answering open ended questions that the encounter in CR sections (Foertsch, 1990, p. 200). It is important to note here that the problem affects students and its effects are reflected in their results. Obviously, teachers have a role to play in any good or performance that students produce. However, it would be grossly unfair to assume that poor performance is a teacher’s problem. Performance here is students’ problem. Clearly, there is something that teachers and/or students are supposed to do that they are not doing. The outcome however is poor results that demands the problem be looked through the students’ perspective.Advertising Looking for coursework on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More There needs to be major focus on helping those students who perform poorly participate in remedial programs where they will be tutored on how to answer CR responses. To achieve the above goal, a concerted effort by teachers and parents is needed. Both parties are critical in helping students especially third graders to use vocabulary, increase self-awareness and develop critical thinking processes. Besides, instructors and teachers have to be careful how CR questions are set since they may at times be the lead cause of negative attitudes from students towards CR reading. This therefore is a proposal of joint activities by parents and teachers supported by school administrations both at home and school to help third graders improve their skills in tackling CR responses in exams. Priorities The priorities for the remedial efforts will be as follows: The improvement of third graders in their abilities to carry out critical analysis while processing strategies for reading comprehension They will as well need to improve on their written expression. The remedial measures will also aim at helping students improve their personal decision making skills that strongly correlate with self-esteem and attitude. They will also need to improve on their literacy with special emphasis on comprehension interpretation as wells as expression skills. Improved performance in CR questions especially in reading and writing skills will be another priority. In order to make an informed needs assessment and recommendations on the remedies to the problems ailing the system, a small research study was conducted among the student and teaching population in both public and private schools in Wisconsin. Data collection Instruments and sources Abstraction Form Data used in this research was collected with the aid of an abstraction form. The form was administered as questionnaire to parents and teachers. The form met methodological standards that a credible research demands. The form sought to collect information exhaustively from teachers and parents. Reporting standards, as laid down by the state’s education regulators, statistical and literatur e aspects, pilot testing, stakeholder opinion, and review were taken into consideration when structuring the form. The form was very specific on the problem and the suggested remedies in the questions put forward to the participants.Advertising We will write a custom coursework sample on Improve Third Grade Constructive Response specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More A sample of fifty parents voluntarily took part in the study together with all teachers and instructors involved in teaching third graders. They were required to fill the form exhaustively and in some cases, oral interviews were carried out. Interviews surveys These involved third graders in various schools. The interviews were conducted using the â€Å"cold probe approach† borrowed from the medical field. The students were not made explicitly aware that they were being interviewed. However, the one on one-interaction sessions were open and students were encouraged to speak freely. A special abstraction form slightly altered from the original one was used as the interview guide. Though not all third graders participated, a majority of those willing did give their opinion. Besides the above sources, there were a little bit of analysis on the schools records on the performance of the students and the techniques and available teaching resources. These provided an insight into the curriculum and offered a chance to evaluate the system and identify points of weakness that needed to be corrected. The study also took into account the ethnicity of the students with emphasis given to the major American racial groups. A careful and objective study was carried out t determine the performance of African Americans, Caucasians, Hispanics, students with disabilities and economically disadvantaged students. Data analysis techniques Descriptive statistics and some bit of inferential statistics were used to analyze the data collected. The descriptive method was used to summarize the data while inferential statistics were used to learn about the student population. Descriptive statistics were used to provide simple summaries concerning the sample and measures used which in turn were generalized on the whole population. Descriptive statistics was chosen so that they can infuse an element of simplicity to the findings for easier understanding. Inferential statistics on the other hand were used in order to make correct and subjective conclusions about the student population as well as the teaching fraternity. Summary of results The summary for the results was as follows:Advertising Looking for coursework on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The analysis centered on the testing and classification of students that scored proficiently in the CR in reading. Overally, 52.2 % of the combined population of students scored proficiently 62% of economically disadvantaged students posted proficient performance in CR reading. 48% of African American students scored proficiently in CR reading 51% of students of Hispanic and Cuban origin scored proficiently in CR reading Only 30% of students with disabilities had proficient performance. 70% of Caucasian and Caucasians of Hispanic origin scored proficiently in CR reading. Findings When looked at separately, Latinos and economically disadvantaged students performed poorly in content and/or style writing and passage literature. On the other hand, Caucasians were poor in content and literature. African Americans were the most challenged presenting poor performance in content, literature, sentence formation and passage content. Overally, the combined student population was found to exh ibit weakness and poor performance on content passage and literature. The two are the precursor to the undesirable performances shown over the years. Majority of the students did cite lack of parental involvement in their school activities while almost half the interviewed population cited lack of clear guidelines to answering CR questions. The students were of the opinion that all they get was drilling for exams instead of clear guidance of how to apply in exams the knowledge gained. They also cited the need for major change in the approaches that teachers use. Though they did not castigate them, many felt the need for teachers to do more on the procedures used in instructing students on tackling comprehension. Needs Assessment Teachers Third grade teachers will analyze data to determine specific areas where the performance is poor. Areas that are performed below proficiency will be identified and the information that is gathered will be used in the redrawing of master maps that re medy curriculum maps. There should be a requirement for all teachers to maintain a curriculum map for reading. Further, the maps should be updated on a monthly basis to ensure they meet all the standards required in terms of content, skills, and assessments. These assessments will include open response items that are critical in answering CR questions (Foertsch, 1990, p. 205). Content passages and style that are the most important components of open response reading will be given emphasis. Teachers should also use explicit teaching procedures when instructing about comprehension. The instruction will be done on both whole and small groups. Landmark assessments will be established to assess benchmarks occasionally to ascertain if progress is made. Additional comprehension strategy instruction will be available to students who teachers may identify as weak or those that they will determine as not fully conversant with the comprehension skills. Additionally, the use of teaching aids su ch as semantic as well as graphic organizers will be encouraged. This is besides conducting lessons characterized by generating and answering questions, recognition of story structures, doing summary, and encouraging the making use of mental imagery (Morgan Anderson, 2008, p. 43). Teachers will also lay emphasis in independent practice while focusing on content reading passages. In isolated cases, additional practice may be given as homework. Parents Parents as important stakeholders of their children’s education should be granted full access to the curriculum mappiers. This will help them have a say on which areas need to be included in the curriculum to improve reading skills and consequently CR response in their exams. Prep periods should be introduced so that both teachers and parents of underperforming children conference to map out ways of meeting the instructional needs of the underperforming students (Paris Stahl, 2005, p. 139). Furthermore, parents should formulate literacy activities that their children will be involved in after school. These activities will be aimed at improving the students’ attitudes and generating some excitement about reading. These activities will also be useful in building their confidence hence help in self-awareness creation. Suggested CR Question setting tips These questions should always be based on specific stimuli and should be set in such a way that they range from the simplest to the most complex. The first question should be general with the answer not far from the stimuli while the second question should be geared towards helping the student make connections between the different parts of the stimuli. Finally, the last question should nudge the student to answer with information that is related to the stimuli but which is not included in the question. Read alouds and discussion groups will aid in vocabulary building. General Recommendations on improving scores for Third graders One of the mistakes tha t system guiders make is the failure to tutor students on how to respond to CR questions. Familiarization of students to CR items will go along way in helping them improve their skills on CR answering. CR items will be infused to the curriculum for students to study them as part of the syllabus. Student’s meta-cognition is developed better when CR tasks are introduced in classrooms and then given a chance to express themselves to their colleagues. After this is done, they will be in a better position to repeat the same on paper. It will also help in building their confidence and critical thinking process since they will incorporate different ideas from different students (Morgan Anderson, 2008, p. 65). A clear understanding of the CR purpose is necessary. Students will learn to appreciate and give it the seriousness it requires. Schools should make a point of availing examples of good CR responses especially to remedial students so that they have a clue to what is expected o f them. The rubrics should also be available to the third graders so that they can use them to evaluate their work. A general rubric booklet for responding to CRs will do the third graders a lot of good. The booklet will help students to be more familiar with the tools that are used to asses them. More importantly, the rubric should be kid friendly to ensure simplicity and easy understanding of its contents. Conclusion The above measures may seem drastic in description. It should not be forgotten that the students here are third graders. Some education experts assert that the most important thing in CR reading is the demonstration by students that they have read and understood the text that can be evidenced through their responses (Morgan Anderson, 2008, p. 58). They further point out that it is their answers need not be neither grammatically correct nor well written. The responses only have to show that students have answered all parts of a question correctly. Care therefore shoul d be taken to ensure their young minds are not put through unnecessary stress in pursuit of better grades. Some of the methods described above are applicable across the board even to older students beyond third grade. While seriousness should be applied when trying to improve their performance, it is also important that the methods are softened to meet their age and needs (Donahue, 2000, p. 74). Finally, it is worthy noting that the will to learn comes from within the learner himself/herself. All the above methods and recommendations can be enforced and followed through to the letter but the learners themselves have to have the will to do it. Counseling therefore will do a lot of good to the third graders, as it will help mould their attitudes towards CR reading. References Alderson, C, J. (2000). Assessing reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Donahue, L.P. (2000). Reading Report Card for the Nation and the States, 1998 (NAEP). New York: Diane Publishing Company. Foertsch , A. M. (1990). Reading in and Out of School: Factors Influencing the Literacy Achievement of American Students in Grades 4, 8 and 12 in 1988 and 1990. New York.Nd Morgan, G. Anderson, P. (2008). Developing tests and questionnaires for a national assessment of educational of Educational Achievement. Washington: World Bank. Paris, G. S. Stahl, A, S. (2005). Children is reading comprehension and assessment. New Jersey: Laurence Erlbaum Associates Inc. This coursework on Improve Third Grade Constructive Response was written and submitted by user Braelynn Rose to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

European leaders Essays - British East India Company, Stamp Act

European leaders Essays - British East India Company, Stamp Act The goals and interests of European leaders diverged from those of colonial citizens, resulting in the colonists growing distrusts and dissatisfaction towards various issues such as territory, taxation, and settlement protection. These clashes between European leaders and the colonial citizens sprouted rebellious behavior that eventually led to war. The conflict that rooted from the differences of motives between the European leaders and colonial citizens was exemplified through the Stamp Act of 1765. The British Parliament had enacted this legislation in order to raise money that was lost in result of the French and Indian War. The British required several kinds of taxes on all items consisted of paper. Although the Europeans saw the act as simply a way to regain lost revenue, the colonists thought differently. The colonists thought the Stamp Act was unfair due to the lack of approval from the colonial legislatures. They felt that the taxes violated their rights as British citizens. The British leaders only cared about earning profit, but the colonists cared about representation and equality. This led to resistance that was demonstrated through boycotting British goods, debates in colonial legislatures, and mob actions such as feathering tax collectors. The different goals and interests between European leaders and colonists resulted in a constant cycle of Parliaments efforts to pass legislatures and the colonists rebelling. After the Stamp Act was eventually repealed, the Declaratory Act was then passed in 1766. The British leaders strongly believed they had full authority over the thirteen colonies and this act affirmed their power. The Declaratory Act was passed to remind the colonists who was in charge. However, many of the colonists gave no care and continued to celebrate over their political victory of the repeal of the Stamp Act; but there were several colonists that were angered because this act hinted that more taxation acts would be coming their way. The British leaders were only interested in money and authority, something the colonists were fully counter to. It was completely evident that the British authority cared solely for capital and complete control over the colonies. Though, the true colonists defiance wasnt fully evident until the Boston Tea Party. In 1773, Parliament passed the Tea Act, which was meant to expand the British East India Companys monopoly on tea trade to all the colonies. This act allowed the company to sell its large tea surplus at a lower price compared to colonial competitors. The Tea Act was the final straw in the series of shunned policies and taxes imposed on the American colonies by the British. Although this act didnt impose new taxes, the colonists were angered with the fact that the British East India Company authorized monopoly on tea. Other tea companies werent happy about this act and the colonists saw Britains efforts to earn more revenue as another mean of taxation without representation because it meant that they couldnt purchase tea from anyone else without spending more money. Once again, British authority and the colonists divergence in objectives sparked yet another riot. The Sons of Liberty, a secret group of protesters, ignited a symbolic act that would change the course of history later that year. They stormed three British ships and dumped crates of tea overboard. This act showed how far Americans were willing to speak out for their freedom. In conclusion, it is apparent that the goals and interests of European leaders and colonial citizens were extremely diverse. While the British leaders focused on wealth and authority to benefit the mother country, the colonists strived for government representation and liberty. Both of these different points of view clashed and led to extreme extents, such as boycotts and rebellions, and eventually the Revolutionary War.

Why Should Companies Based in the United States Outsource Parts of Research Paper

Why Should Companies Based in the United States Outsource Parts of their Business to Off-Shore Locations - Research Paper Example The nation’s international presence has not only facilitated the process of outsourcing for the companies in USA but also made them successful in the global market. There has been extensive debate on whether outsourcing is desirable or not and whether people are affected by it. There have been different views on it from people. The project explores the advantages that the US firms enjoy through outsourcing of activities. The advantages would be discussed in terms of the economic benefits brought about in the company in the long run. Economic Benefits to the Company and the U.S. economy in the long term The US organizations are generally seen to outsource activities to countries like India and China and have attained considerable success in capitalizing in these markets. India is considered to have extensive technical expertise, which is one of the factors why the size of the outsourcing sector is huge in the country. This helps the US firms to exploit the core competencies of the developing nations and use them in the company’s advantage. In addition to this among the outsourced countries, India also has a large pool of talent which has a strong command on the English language. This is accompanied with a strong base of technically skilled expertise (Whitfield & VanHorssen, 2008, p.2). Among the other key players in the field of outsourcing is Brazil, which provides a highly advanced technological infrastructure. Another option before the US companies is Russia which provides a huge pool of labor which is educated in the field of science. Their labor is also known for their strong delivery and process methodology. The nation is one of the most competent in the area of research and development. It has immense support of the government to develop its software skills and expertise (Whitfield & VanHorssen, 2008, p.2). Extensive research was conducted which indicates that both the industrialized and developing nations in the world could reap the gains f rom outsourcing of services. This would essentially mean efficiency gains from the point of view of the industrial nations via the opportunity of developing skills and expertise in areas in which they have competencies. According to the report presented by McKinsey Global Institute (2003), for every US $1, worth of outsourcing, USA gains $1.12 and the outsourced country gains $0.33 approximately. This fact shows the degree of gains that organizations can enjoy through the process of outsourcing. Most multinational companies have started outsourcing their service activities on a regular basis. This is done based on the ground that in case they do not outsource their services while their competitors continued to do so, they would lose the local and global markets to their foreign rivals. This is because it is felt that if they don’t outsource while their competitors continue to do so aggressively, they would be losing on the local and global market to the foreign rivals. This w ould be likely to result in low and stagnant profits which would result in low creation of investment and capital in technologies. The advantage of saving costs from outsourcing accounts for the most important value source for the organizations in US (Rajan & Srivastava, 2007, p.40). Global outsourcing is particularly effective in attaining advantages for developing nations of the world. There has been opening up of new employment opportunities, exports and growth of numerous of tradable services activities. Looking at a more dynamic picture, increase in the level of income by trade would simultaneously bring about creation of favorable feedback effects from the other

Identify three accomplishments in your professional career and explain Essay - 1

Identify three accomplishments in your professional career and explain how they demonstrate your potential to become a successful manager - Essay Example This was mainly due to the lack of transparency between management and employees. My firm believes that an organization can reach its maximum potential if its members are allowed to honestly provide as well as accept constructive feedback as it makes the circumstances conducive for mutual growth. Following this belief, I took the risk of singlehandedly approaching the higher management and suggesting them to foster open communication where employees and the management could discuss the sales and marketing plans with each other as a team. Initially, my proposal met with disapproval and I was criticized for being a non-conformist. Nevertheless, the skepticism soon turned into acknowledgement with the implementation of the communication policy as per my suggestion. Management realized the benefits of having the company share future plans with the employees more responsively. Accordingly, it opened a new channel between the employees and the management. Later, I asked myself what had mad e me flow against the main stream. It dawned upon me that this incident was an outcome of the very character-building exercise that I was doing since childhood. That exercise encouraged me to rise and face such situations with integrity and perseverance. I was the leader on a project for a pharmaceutical client. We had to implement a SharePoint – InfoPath solution. As it was our first time with a pharmaceutical client, we just made sure that the estimates were objective and optimistic enough to win us the complete project. The actual design consumed considerably lesser time to be made than it does normally, though I strongly believe that if 80 per cent of the total time on a project is spent on designing and clarifying issues, development takes no more than 20 per cent of the time. I resolved to take added responsibilities in order to make sure

Did the case of Horsham kill the case of Boland Essay

Did the case of Horsham kill the case of Boland - Essay Example The essay "Did the case of Horsham kill the case of Boland?" analyzes two cases about proprietary deviation and the connection between them. The case of Boland is concerned with the violation of wife’s unregistered right of possession of her matrimonial home in which her spouse had an equal share but had his name alone shown as the registered proprietor of the property in the land register. The husband had mortgaged the property to Williams & Glyns’s Bank without his wife’s knowledge even though they were living together in the same house. The mortgagee bank also did not care to verify with his wife if she had any interest before lending her husband against the mortgage of the said property. The question was whether the wife had an overriding interest by virtue of section 70 (1) (g) Registration Act 1925.since the appellant had sought to distinguish the â€Å"word actual occupation† as mentioned in the said section from her real status. The House of Lords ruled that actual occupation had only its literal meaning of physical presence and as long as she was physically present in the matrimonial home with all the rights of an occupied. Hence the wife had an overriding interest even though it could be argued that hers was the equitable interest as a minor interest entitled her interest only in the proceeds of a sale. The mortgagee bank failed to verify the factual position at their peril. Thus an equitable mortgagee does not get priority over an equitable interest of which he is deemed to have constructive notice.

Diaper Market in India

Diaper Market in India Birth rates have declined in the developed world and that has become unfavorable for the diaper manufacturers to expand their businesses. Internationally, birth rates in the developed nations have declined by 20% during the last 30 years and are now only half the global average. The global market for diapers was worth $22.2 billion, a 2.9% increase Year on Year. But the major markets of Western Europe, the U.S. and Japan reported decline. As a result, companies like Procter Gamble and Kimberly Clark are banking more on innovation to their rescue. This has been a major contributor of success for PG in the past few years. There is newly developed focus on developing country markets, which derives 40% of global diaper revenue. Markets such as Russia and China are providing brands with excellent opportunities for longer term growth. It is also remarkable to see the trend in the developed markets towards greener products as shown in the chart below Diaper Market in Developing Country There is huge growth potential for diaper products in emerging markets such as China, Brazil and India, as these markets are still quite underdeveloped and in the nascent stage. While it has taken advanced Western economies some time to realize the environmental price of their development this is not the case for todays emerging nations. In this case even the global recession will enable China to have more time to better make arrangements for considering more sustainable and greener options for its growth. Middle-class is at the forefront of environmental awareness as the environmental consequences of rapid industrialization and urbanization in countries such as China and India are becoming increasingly apparent Also in countries such as India, the Philippines and Malaysia, levels of consumer awareness regarding hygiene products are very still very low. Indian Diaper Market In 2009, manufacturers have been now more focused on more categories such as disposable diapers. With the increasing buying power of Indian consumers, companies are looking for options which are more convenient and safe to use for the children. Increase in awareness about hygiene is a big factor for thus development. Some of the major development last year is as follows: Procter Gamble Hygiene Health Care Ltd introduced Pampers Magic Nickers Kimberly-Clark Lever Ltd introduced Huggies New Born, a product specifically targeting the mothers of new born babies. With increasing awareness regarding the advantages of using the use of disposable diapers over cloth substitutes, Indian parents are now spending more on purchasing such products which in turn led to an increase in sales value for the manufacturers. Convenience has been one of the driving factors in this change. Even in tier 2 towns and cities, parents are willing to spend money on disposable diapers to use when the baby is taken out of the home, for added convenience. Also as babies get older, some young mothers look to go back to work. This encouraged the use of diapers, as they are more convenient, and they do not need to spend time washing cloth nappies. Also, as babies become more active, and nappies are a more comfortable and hygienic alternative to cloth nappies. However currently the majority of the sales is restricted to customers in urban India. So the penetration rate of disposable diapers has been increasing, as more young parents are finding it convenient to switch from cloth nappies to disposable nappies. Sales of disposable pants remained negligible in India in 2009. Procter Gamble Hygiene Health Care Ltd introduced Pampers Magic Nickers and Uni-Charm Corp entered India with its brand of Mamy Poko Pants. Disposable pants have seen an increase in activity from the leading brands, but sales have still not become significant. The main factors that inhibit the growth of this category are as follows: Cultural factors: Diapers are a relatively new concept in India. Indian parents use Diaper only for the sake of convenience during travel. Price: When launched, diapers were priced at around Rs. 15 per piece which is high priced. The average prices in last few years have dropped to Rs 10 per piece but its still very costly for everyday usage. Other Trends: Potty training in India is at around two to two and a half years average. With that taking place at such a young age, the use of diapers is even lower for Indian babies. Also with the easy availability of cheap domestic help in India, it is convenient for Indian mothers to wash and reuse cloth nappies. Some of the important facts and figures are shown as follows: Marketing Objective The penetration of disposable diapers has been increasing, as parents are finding it suitable to switch from cloth nappies to disposable nappies. With the market offering a variety of products across several price ranges, use of disposable diapers is expected to grow. Today young mothers are more sensitive about hygiene and health. They will readily utilize disposable nappies from an earlier age. Also, many young working mothers will want to habituate their children to wearing disposable diapers, and thus will start using them early. The forecast of retail sales of Diapers shows strong growth figures, in two digits. And with more consumers shifting from traditional cloth nappies to disposable diapers, the category is expected to burgeon in the coming years. Godrej Consumer Products Limiteds main brand under Tissues and Hygiene category, Snuggy Dry has witnessed several changes in ownership in the Indian market. The joint venture between Godrej Consumer Products limited and SCA Hygiene Products which manufactured and distributed Snuggy Dry discontinued. This led to SCA Hygienes exit from India. The brand Snuggy Dry, which was the third largest disposable diapers brand in 2009, is now being marketed and distributed by Godrej Consumer Products Ltd. Over the years, the diaper market in India has been dominated by existing players Kimberley Clark and Procter and Gamble as can been seen in the graph below. Godrej is moving strong in FMCG sector currently standing second to HUL and being fiercely competitive to HUL. Although Hindustan Unilever enjoys market leadership in several segments in India, it is slowly losing its ground to Godrej, which has relatively competitively priced products. Moreover, profit margins of Godrej products are significantly higher than those of HULs. Based on this background, the marketing objective is to capitalize on the above mentioned conditions and increase the market share of Snuggy Dry diapers from the current 8% level to 10% in short term and substantially continue gaining higher market share. 5Cs Situation Analysis Godrej Company Godrej Consumer Products (GCPL) is deals in manufacturing, marketing, and distributing fast moving consumer goods. The company offers various products such as soaps, toiletries, cosmetics, hair care, household care, fabric care and baby care products. It also markets products under Cinthol, Fairglow, Godrej No 1, Nupur and Ezee brand names. The company primarily operates in India and some overseas market. It is headquartered in Mumbai, India. The company recorded revenues of INR13,929.7 million ($303.9 million) in the financial year ended March 2009 (FY2009), an increase of 26.3% over FY2008. The companys operating profit was INR1,881.6 million ($41.1 million) in FY2009, a decrease of 4.8% compared to FY2008. Its net profit was INR1,732.5 million ($37.8 million) in FY2009, an increase of 8.8% over FY2008. (Source :EuroMoniter) In Diaper segment, Godrej Products Ltd offers Snuggy Dry. This has around 10% market share accounting for the third position in Indian Diaper market. Godrej Consumer Products Ltd regained share in 2009, as the joint venture between Godrej Sara Lee and SCA Hygiene (Godrej SCA Hygiene Ltd) was discontinued. The brand Snuggy Dry is now being marketed and distributed by Godrej Consumer Products Ltd exclusively. The company has five factories in India, at Baddi, Guwahati, Katha, Malanpur and Sikkim. Apart from Snuggy Dry, all the other products of GCPL are produced in-country. Snuggy Dry was part of the Godrej SCA Hygiene Ltd joint venture, which was imported into India, and after the discontinuation of the joint venture, the brand was distributed by GCPL. Competition Huggies (by Kimberly-Clark) is the leader in the Indian market with a value share if 60 % share.Pampers from Procter and Gamble Hygiene and Health Care Ltd. is at number 2 spot followed by Snuggy from Godrej Consumer products Ltd. Wipro Ltd and BellePremier Happy HygieneCare Pvt. Ltd. also have their own brands competing for the market share. Huggies and Pampers controlled 84% of the market in 2009 according to a Euro monitor International report. These brands have invested heavily in advertising and hence have a dominating market share. Kimberly Clark launched a new product called Huggies New Born in 2009, which was diaper targeted towards new mothers. The product has been a moderate success as penetration of disposable diapers remains low in India, with mothers often using cloth nappies for young boys. New brand Mamy Poko Pants has been using extensive television advertising, with its advertisements highlighting the comfort of the products and the ease with which they can be put on a child. In a market in which the leading players advertise a great deal through television, these advertisements will help it to increase its brand presence. It can be said that the products compete against each other based on the price. Teddy and Wipro are considered as economy brands. Pampers, Huggies and Snuggy have price points in all three price segments. Disposable pants have a more premium price point within diapersPantaloon Retail India Ltd entered this category with the launch of its brand Caremate in 2009. Other private labels have not yet emerged in India. Diapers/Pants Retail Company Shares 2005-2009 Customers With the increasing income levels in India, parents are spending more on purchasing disposable diapers instead of reusing cloth nappies at home. In addition, awareness is increasing through the media about the different brands and the benefits of using disposable diapers over cloth versions, manufacturers saw an increase in value sales. Even in smaller towns and cities, parents are willing to spend money on disposable diapers to use when the baby is taken out of the home, for added convenience. This has made Indias nascent baby care market transforming into worlds fastest growing baby market. A vast population of population in age group 0-4 years is a boon to the market. Aggressive marketing strategies and consumer acceptance of branded premium baby care products (especially in baby food and skin care segments) will enable the industry to register a CAGR of more than 11% during 2010-2013. The major market players have used television based advertising to their full advantage and have raised the awareness of Baby care. With the increased awareness and increasing purchasing power, customers are fast shifting from cloth nappies to baby diapers. The Decision makers in this market are parents with mother being the dominant decision maker. The market has used extensive retail channels with super markets, traditional grocery stores etc. This use of extensive channels has also resulted in the increasing demand. The rapid development of modern retail infrastructure is luring consumers for convenient shopping experience and transforming into high retail spending. Baby care companies are optimally utilizing this trend and executing strong product positioning strategies to maximize their market returns According to recent research, the Indian baby care market has grown substantially over the past few years and caught the attention of international players. However, there is still a relatively large and untapped market in the rural sector. This market is anticipated to witness concrete market developments which will also give impetus to the baby care market. Collaborators Most diaper brands in India are imported and so is the case with Snuggy. The production for Snuggy is carried out by a Chinese manufacturer. BroadVision, Inc. announced that Godrej Group of India has successfully implemented two new sales portals for its business and consumer channels. The new portals, built using BroadVisions multi-channel sales portal and content solution, have streamlined and enhanced customer service for two Godrej Group subsidiaries-Godrej Industries Limited (GIL), which provides industrial supplies to businesses, and Godrej Consumer Products Limited, a manufacturer of consumer products According to the companys analyst and investor meet report, rural distribution is essential for a sound growth. In 2009, reach in rural areas has increased by 40-50% in terms of small towns and villages. Rural now measures about quarter of GCPLs sales. It accounts for 45% of the growth. Going forward it is expected to be a continuous growth driver. Context Social/Cultural: In general, in India the diaper is met with resistance. And diapers are perceived as status symbols. One of the major concerns of diapers is rash it causes. Indians are not tolerant of rash and insist that the baby move around bare bottomed. Technology: Companies are heavily investing for bringing about innovations in this field. They are offering new products to boost consumer confidence and increase their market shares. Huggies Dry Diaper currently available in India is particularly designed for new users in new markets. The product employs high technology super absorbent materials (SAM) to deliver super dryness to the user which results in dry and healthy skin. SAM can absorb up to 100 times its weight. Also high leg cut design is one more innovation for hot climate from Kimberly- Clarke. It is a capital intensive industry and is associated with high costs. This is one of the major reasons why Godrej diapers are not manufactured in India but imported from China. SWOT Analysis (S)trengths: Godrej brand name is an asset, well known to Indian consumer Leveraging on the distribution channel by using Operation Big C. Cost benefit obtained by product import from china (W)eaknesses: Lack of marketing focus coupled with moderate success of Snuggy Happy Baby contest. Unavailability of RD facilities (O)pportunities: Strong Market Growth expected at 16% Growing disposable income of Indian parents ( both parents working) Increasing hygiene and health awareness of preferring diapers over clothes. (T)hreats: Presence of many competitors in the market Newer indigenous brand targeting the economic segment of the market Marketing Strategies The below graph shows the number of new born babies born per inhabitants, though the number of new-born babies are decreasing but still the market is huge. Diaper is competing with the traditional way of using Clothes which has the advantages of reuse, inexpensive and to a certain extent healthier for the babies. Healthier in the sense, diapers used to cause rashes while clothes didnt. Diapers have the advantage of convenience and cleanliness. In order to increase the market share for Godrej diapers we intend to implement a progressive marketing strategy. In terms of marketing we intend that our name and products are marketed on an extensive basis to ensure that customers are aware of our existence. In price, we intend to offer reasonable and competitive prices in comparison to other competitors and we need to be able to sustain that. Segmentation Profiles Dividing a market in to distinct groups of buyers with different needs, characteristics, or behaviour who might require separate product or marketing mixes. We can segment the market for the diaper market based on the disposable income of the parents. Regular use of disposable diapers remains more restricted to parents in urban India. Based on the stage of the new-born baby , the number of diaper to be used per month can be found Godrej should launch the diaper in three segments Premature when the baby is less than 6 months , New born when the baby is less than 2 year and Mini pack when the baby is 2-4 year. We can segment the market based on the Tier-1, Tier-2 cities. The disposable income of the parents has been increasing not just in Metro cities but also in tier-1 and tier-2 cities as well. But we find that number of working mother is less in these cities when compared to metropolitan cities. So the diaper usage will be less when compared to metropolitan cities. So we need to use a push marketing strategy for this segment of population without altering the pricing mix. Target Segment Demographic Distribution AGE GROUPS PERSONS MALES FEMALES 6 years and Below 163,819,614 84,999,203 78,820,411 RURAL-URBAN POPULATION DISTRIBUTION POPULATION PERCENTAGE RURAL 742,490,639 72.2 URBAN 286,119,689 27.8 Percentage of Children below 6yrs to total rural/urban population RURAL URBAN Number of children(0-6 yrs) 117,950,122 45869491 Percentage of Population 15.8 16 The target market will obviously be mothers to be and current mothers. Indians are not used to this product. This category is concentrated on urban market. The Indian mother is a cost-conscious woman and would like to recycle most of the products used for her household. The same applies to the products used for her baby too. Moreover, large population base in 0-4 years and parents increasing preference to spend more on baby products will drive the market to new horizons in near future. Apart from penetrating deep into urban market, rural market will also provide growth opportunities to companies. Indian demographic distribution shows that 72 percent of the population live in rural areas while the rest 28 percent live in urban or semi-urban areas. Out of the total population mix both in rural and urban areas approximately 15 -16% population is below 6 years which form the potential market share for the diaper market. With the average purchasing power of the Indian population increasing and the with increased hygiene awareness the rural market is the market of the future. When the purchasing power parity reaches threshold, India will be the largest customer of diapers within the next 15 years which and is expected to explode in next 3 to 5 years. It has been found that with the present birth rate 24 million babies are born in India every year. If we typically calculate 25% of these infants in the period birth and 24 months use at least 28 diapers a week, theoretically the available market is 8.7 billion pieces per year. It is estimated that the diaper market would grow at a rate of around 5-10%. This proposed market segmentation will help building strong position in specialized diaper market segments. It will allows Godrej to focus on target customer specific needs. It will help them to understand the customer need and make improvement in marketing mix for each segment. It will help Godrej to compete with Huggies and Pamper brand diapers. The TV and print media can reach the diaper buyers. These two media forms the potential to create the brand awareness among the buyers through various advertisements and promotional campaigns. Positioning The Godrej diaper should be positioned as a value-for-money brand, one that Reasonably priced Softness Ease of use Comfortable, good fit Manufactured with bacteria resistant technology, with clean and highly absorbent cotton lap Environment friendly No irritation to the skin Quicker Absorption Super Absorbent core keeping the baby dry for long hours It should be positioned as a product which is a Small package of joy Marketing Mix Product Design Disposable diaper is made of an absorbent pad sandwiched between two sheets of fabric. The diapers are made by a multi-step process, viz. The absorbent pad is made and attached to a permeable top sheet and impermeable bottom sheet The other accessories are then sealed together by application of heat or ultrasonic vibrations.ÂÂ   Features The function of the pad is to absorb and retain body fluids, and the non-woven fabric gives the diaper a comfortable shape and prevents leakage. The main features of diapers would include: Absorb body fluid. Retain body fluid inside the absorbent core. Isolate wetness from the babys skin. Isolate other excretion from babys environment (clothes, bed, etc). Varieties The following major varieties of diapers and tissue hygiene products are predominantly present in the Indian market Regular diapers New born nappies Disposable pants Adult diapers Junior diapers Godrej primarily focuses on regular diapers, junior diapers and new born nappies. The company markets a narrow portfolio of products within retail tissue and hygiene. It has only two brands, Snuggy Dry and Protekt, but there are some variations in terms of fragrances under the Protekt brand umbrella. Most of the diaper brands continue to be imported, including Snuggy. Godrej is currently outsourcing its diapers from a Chinese company and will continue to do so until the volumes pick up. Price Godrej has positioned its brands Snuggy Dry and Protekt in the standard price segment in the market. A regular Godrej diaper pack of 6 costs Rs. 50. Currently, the Snuggy brand of diapers has a retail price of Rs 85 for a pack of 10. Smaller pack sizes have also been introduced and there are more product innovations being considered within the diaper category in the area of nappy pads much along the same lines of its competitor Huggies from Kimberly Clark, which has also introduced nappy pads. However, the current prices are a result of 2% price hike in March 2010, by Godrej. In the retail tissue and hygiene market in India, Godrej diapers held just above 2% value share and were ranked 6 in 2009. Within diapers/pants, the company held a share of 8%, and was in third position after Procter Gamble Hygiene Health Care Ltd and Kimberly-Clark Lever Ltd. Promotion Being the first brand of diapers in the country, Snuggy enjoys high-brand loyalty as one of the three leading players in the Indian baby diaper market. Godrej benefits from the brand loyalty which Snuggy commands in the consumers mind. The following table shows the ranking of nappies and hygiene products in the sales of Godrej in 2009. Advertising Diaper ads typically are earnest, fawning over babies and remaining steadfastly euphemistic about function, typically pouring blue liquid into diapers to demonstrate absorbency. The major two brands focus on heavy marketing and advertisement in mass media and television. This has led them to capture around 90% of the market share. A commercial titled SNUGGY HAPPY BABY CONTEST was done by Madison Media advertising agency for GODREJ diapers. The campaign was moderately successful and helped Godrej to keep its 10% market share. Place The company has national coverage through wide marketing and distribution channels. Supermarkets and malls, especially BIG BAZAR and Reliance Fresh have considerable self coverage of Godrej Diapers, though majority of the hygiene shelf space is still taken up by the two major players. Channels OTC Sales: Godrej intends to push various OTC (over-the-counter) products and brands and the primary inclusion in this category is Snuggy diapers. It feels that coupled with a consumer pull strategy through the marketing campaign SNUGGY HAPPY BABY CONTEST, this aggressive dealer push strategy will help it to gain sales. Operation BIG C: Godrej looks at revamping distribution network and re-staging of brands. As a part of Operation BIG C, it intends to use the Chemist network in the country as a retail outlet for Snuggy diapers. The chemist margin for Godrej Diaper sales has consequently been kept higher. Following the success of Operation B, which involved the saloons of the country for Godrej Beauty product outlets, Godrej hopes to achieve as high as 20% market share through Operation BIG C. Financial Projections The baby diaper market in India is fairly underdeveloped and is approximately Rs 4479.8 million. Source: Official statistics, Euromonitor International estimates, trade associations, trade press, company research etc. The overall growth of the market is projected to be around 15% per annum. Source: Official statistics, Euromonitor International estimates, trade associations, trade press, company research etc. The current share of Godrej diapers under the brand name of Snuggy diaper is approx 8% of the overall share. That means the market share of Snuggy diaper is approximately Rs 371 million. Source: Official statistics, Euromonitor International estimates, trade associations, trade press, company research etc. Diapers/Pants Retail Company Shares 2005-2009ÂÂ   Financial projections of Snuggy diaper Selling 7.5 million units of diaper at Rs 6 each will achieve the marketing objective of godrej Snuggy diaper. To achieve targeted revenue, Godrej diaper needs to generate revenue of INR 126 million (as given in above table, point 15). With the potential price and sale of the diapers in a quarter Godrej can expect to generate revenue of Rs 135 million (point 9 mentioned in given table above). As per the financial projections annual revenue of Snuggy diaper is Rs 371 million in 2009 which will grow to approx Rs 504 million in 2010 which comes to around 35 % growth in revenue. Budget Analysis and Implementation In view with the financial projections, please find the below budget analysis Particulars Cost Comments Gross Profit 1.2 INR per diaper Profit from sale of one diaper Quarterly sales targets 23 Million Quarterly sales expected Quarterly profit 27 Million INR Overall profit Budget Allocation Advertisement 10 million INR Budget allocation from advertisement and awareness spreading Collaborators margin 7 Million INR Retailers need to be given additional margins to promote Snuggy Diaper Implementation As the sales volume starts increasing, Godrej can open up the manufacturing unit at one of its already existing factory unit locations. Below is the approximate cost of building up the net manufacturing unit. Particulars Cost (INR in crore) Comments Land Required(1200 sq mt) 0.6 Rs 5000 per sq/mt Building 0.5 Rs 5000 per sq/mt Total Plant and Machinery for diapers 3.5 Industry average Installation of Electricity 0.015 130 KVA transformer Other preliminary expenses 0.05 Total Expenditure 5 approximately The brand Snuggy is distributed by GCPL and currently not manufactured locally. The company is well positioned in diapers/pants in India, which is seeing an increase due to more Indian parents using diapers for their babies. Experts believe that since Snuggy is imported into India after the discontinuation of the joint venture with SCA Hygiene Ltd, there is a strong case to save costs by manufacturing the product locally. Available in pack sizes of 2s, 5s and 10s, for all age groups including new born, standard and junior, the brand can be affordably priced alongside mainstream brands, and supported by aggressive advertising. GCPL requires not just building distribution and trade relations in the fragmented retail landscape, but also investment in terms of advertising and promotions. The revenue model will be on the lines of Operation Big B, with chemist shops being offered higher margins.

Barbados Revolt 1816 Essay

There were 2 main leaders of the Barbados Revolt of 1816, they were Bussa who was a free man in Africa and was brought to the Caribbean in the transatlantic slave trade which was indeed traumatizing. the other leader was Nanny Grigg. Causes The causes of the 1816 revolt in Barbados are: 1. The British Slave Trade was abolished in 1807 and the slaves mistook it for emancipation. There was a registry or registration bill or also called the registration of slaves {1812-1815} in which planters or owners had to register their slaves, this was passed so as to stop excessive punishment as well as the illegal sale of slaves. The planters were infuriated over the passing of this bill and saw it as interference in their domestic affairs. The slaves misinterpreted this as being angry about a plan for their emancipation. 2. A free colored man called Washington Franklin read newspaper reports of the anti-slavery debates. 3. Harsh treatment inflicted by white society-desire for permanent freedom and revenge. 4. Some slaves who were literate such as Nanny Grigg, had access to local and English newspapers from which they learnt about what was happening in England Haiti and elsewhere. 5. An able leader emerged among the slave that is Bussa, an African born slave. 6. This revolt was mainly fueled by the planters’ refusal to accept the Slave Registration Bill, the fact that the slaves felt their Emancipation was being withheld from them and the ideas of freedom and equality being cultivated in the minds of the slaves’ mind by non-conformists Missionaries. 7. The slaves believed emancipation had been granted, mistaking it for the Registration Bill (which stated that all slaves had to be accounted for, so no smuggling went on) and revolted. *Slaves in Barbados enjoyed some measure of freedom; this measure of freedom helped them to organize the revolt. Effects/Results 1. The missionaries were kicked out of Barbados – This help to turn the British public opinion against the planters and made people in Britain more favorable to emancipation – Humanitarians were encourage increasing their activity to bring down slavery 2. Planters became fearful 3. Several hundred slaves were killed Bussa Bussa, (also recorded as Bussa, or Busso or Bussoe) was born in Africa but captured and brought to Barbados to work as a slave on Bayleys Plantation in the southern parish of St Philip. (Today, the plantation’s ‘Great House’ is still standing and become the residence and recording studio of international musician Eddy Grant) His birth date remains unknown, however it is thought that he arrived in Barbados as an adult. On the plantation Bussa worked as a domestic slave, a head-ranger at Bayleys and did not experience the intense hardships that the field slaves endured. Domestic slaves generally considered themselves above the field slaves and some even exposed plans of slave rebellions to their ‘masters’ in order to gain favour. Bussa however, despite his ‘privileged’ position, helped to plan for months in advance. The slaves rebellions were born out of a strong desire to overthrow the oppressive white plantocracy and claim their freedom. It is said that plans for the rebellion began after the House of Assembly’s rejection of the Imperial Registry Bill in November 1815. On the night of Good Friday, April 12, 1816, the final preparations were made for the rebellion. At this meeting, it was decided that a mulatto slave Washington Francklyn was intended to become the Governor of the island. On the night of Good Friday, April 12, 1816, the final preparations were made for the rebellion. At this special meeting, it was decided that a mulatto slave Washington Francklyn was supposed to become the Governor of the island. On the morning of Sunday April 14, 1816 Bussa led around 400 slaves Several cane fields were set afire and from Bayley’s Plantation in St Philip the insurrection quickly spread to Christ Church, St George, St Thomas, St Lucy and St Thomas. The white plantation owners were totally caught off guard. The slaves fought valiantly against the troops of the First West India regiment and it was reported The rebellion spread from plantation to plantation until about half of the island was caught up in the insurrection. It took four days for the authorities to regain control. Bussa was killed in battle, and the ringleaders were executed. Although the rebellion ultimately failed, it was never forgotten. In 1985 more than a century later, the Emancipation Statue was erected at the roundabout in Haggatt Hall, St Michael. In 1999, Bussa was named as one of the national heroes of Barbados. and there is also a national holiday ‘Emancipation Day’, which celebrates the emancipation of the slaves.

Pros and Cons of Using a Plus-Minus Grading System

Student and Faculty Views of Plus-Minus Grading Systems Working Paper Series—07-11 | December 2007 Jim Morgan (928) 523-7385 James. [email  protected] edu Gary Tallman Robert Williams All professors at: Northern Arizona University The W. A. Franke College of Business PO Box 15066 Flagstaff, AZ 86011. 5066 Student and Faculty Views of Plus-Minus Grading Systems Introduction Many colleges and universities have adopted or are considering adopting a grading system that provides a larger number of marking choices than the A through F whole-letter system. This usually takes the form of a plus-minus (+/-) grading system in one version or another.While a variety of reasons have been put forth for the move to +/- grades, a key motivation is the belief that a +/- grading system can either reverse the progression of grade inflation or counter its effects by establishing more grade choices so that performance can be more effectively differentiated. This paper first reviews studies of th e prevalence in American colleges and universities of +/- grading systems and, perhaps more importantly, the prevalence of schools not using +/- systems who could potentially benefit from a shift to use of this form of grading system.Because of limitations found in available data, a targeted analysis of grading systems of a selected set of universities has been conducted. The results of this secondary research are briefly reported in the second section below. Results of the first two sections indicate that there remains a substantial set of schools that do not currently utilize +/- grading and might be considering a shift to this form of grading system. Next the paper reviews literature dealing with faculty and student perceptions of +/- grading systems and the effects of these systems on the level and distribution of grades and on student effort.Substantial differences in the perceptions of the two groups are found. The major focus of this paper is the analysis of how faculty and s tudent perceptions of the benefits of a +/- grading system differ and what the motivations for these differences might be. The technique used to explore these questions is a survey of both faculty and student reactions to a hypothesized change to a +/- grading system at a mid-size public university in the Southwest. The results indicate that the faculty is much more supportive of a change than are students.Insights as to why each group views the effects of the hypothesized change differently are explored in the paper with possible explanations for the differences found in expectancy theory, a popular theory of human motivation that suggests students and faculty will each react to the change in a way that is likely to produce positive benefits for them, and in resistance to change theory which seeks to identify the factors causing resistance among groups affected by a change. Our study shows that each group perceives the effects of the change differently and that some students and fa culty members have very strong commitments to their views.Examination of the Extent of Use of +/- Grades A study by the American Association of College Registrar and Admissions Offices reported that 36% of institutions (both 2 and 4 year) in 1992 used pluses or minuses in grading whereas 56% of such institutions did so in 2002 [Brumfield, 2005]. Thirty-two institutions moved to a +/- system over the ten year period. Private schools were much more likely to use a +/- system than public schools. This continues the trend noted in the prior ten year period when a 12% increase in institutions using a +/system was noted [Riley, Checca, Singer, & Worthington, 1994].In order to further evaluate the use of +/- and other extended category grading systems, on-line catalogs of a representative sample of one fourth of all AACSB accredited business schools were reviewed to determine each school’s undergraduate grading policy. A total of 99 schools were surveyed, 71 of them public and 28 pr ivate. Table 1 shows the distribution of grading systems used. Three basic grading systems were identified: systems using pluses-minuses, systems using a single intermediate grade and traditional whole-letter grading systems of A, B, C, D, and either E or F.Note that about one third of the schools continue to use whole-letter only grading systems. Among public schools, 30 of 71 (42. 5 percent) use only whole-letter grading. Plus-minus grading systems are clearly the most prevalent type of grading system among this group of schools. To clarify the notation used below, the A+ to C+ system would use the grades A+, A, A-, B+, B, B-, C+, C , D, F, while an A+ to D- system would use A+, A, A-, B+, B, B-, C+, C, C-, D+, D, D-, F and so on. The plus or minus typically raises (lowers) the grade by . or . 33 grade points. As the table indicates, many schools 1 do not allow pluses and minuses across their full range of grades. The grade of A+ creates the possibility of a GPA greater than 4. 0 and, probably for this reason; only 9 of the 60 schools with a +/- system include an A+. Four of the 9 schools using the A+ resolve the GPA problem by recording the A+ as a 4. 0 when calculating GPAs, so that the A+ becomes just a notation on individual course grades. Schools also differ with respect to the bottom of the +/- range.Most frequently, pluses and minuses are used all the way down through the D-, however, due to issues relating to transfer grades and determining the grade required for satisfying prerequisites, a number of schools terminate the use of pluses and minuses with the D+ (they do not use a D-) and others stop at the C+ or even C- level. TABLE 1 Distribution of University Grading Systems Number of Schools Using 60 1 8 4 3 16 27 1 7 4 3 32 32 Plus and Minus Grades A+ thru C+ * A+ thru DA- thru C+ A- thru CA- thru D+ A- thru DB+ thru DSingle Intermediate Grade AB, BC & CD AB and BC Whole-letter Only A thru F The A+ grade is counted as a 4. 0 for 4 of the schools us ing an A+ Systems using a single intermediate grade are far less prevalent than the +/- systems. The single intermediate grade is typically listed either as the concatenation of the two grades it lies between, such as AB for the grade between an A and a B, or as a plus without a corresponding minus. In these systems the grade points awarded for the intermediate grade are half way between the two related whole-letter grades (a 3. 5 for an AB or a B+). Why the Movement to +/- Grading?The proportion of institutions using +/- grading systems increased by 12 percent from 1982 to 1992 [Riley, Checca, Singer, & Worthington, 1994] with the trend continuing. There are three reasons typically cited as motivation for universities to change to a +/- grading system. They are concerns over grade inflation, ability to differentiate between students and ability to motivate students to aspire to learn more. A substantial body of literature details the existence of grade inflation in American college s and universities.One study [Levine, 1994] surveyed 4,900 college graduates from 1969 to 1993 and found that the number of A’s awarded had quadrupled and the number of C’s had dropped by two thirds. +/grading shows some promise in reducing grade inflation. In a recent article the author cites evidence of other studies plus his own analysis of the experience of Berry College to conclude that the implementation of a +/- system halts and in some cases produces a minor reversal in grade inflation [Bressette, 2002]. This effect is not equal over all majors.Majors that traditionally have low GPA’s are affected less by a change to a +/- system than majors in a high GPA major [Bressette, 2002]). 2 Proponents of a +/- system also believe it better differentiates students and that it is fairer or more precise. Researchers have found that grades are more reliable indicators of student performance as the width of a grade interval is narrowed [Singleton & Smith, 1978]. The existence of grade inflation in combination with the traditional A-F grading system effectively reduces the grades available and widens the range of student performance represented by each grade.The introduction of +/- grades increases the grades available and narrows the interval for each grade. In majors where grading is more holistic however, faculty believe the additional grade choices create less precision in student evaluations [Quann, 1987]. It is also argued that students are motivated to work harder under a +/- system. Anecdotal evidence in the form of student quotes indicates that they must continue to work through the entire semester to earn a grade under the more refined +/- system.The chance of earning a higher grade may be a motivator (plus) but the risk of earning a lower grade (minus) might be an even stronger motivator according to one study [Cullen et al. , 1975]. Evidence to the contrary is present in a study of economics classes at a mid-size Midwestern universit y that concluded students who chose +/- grading were not significantly more motivated than students who did not [McClure & Spector, 2005]. Student and Faculty Attitudes Toward +/- Grading As noted above, the momentum is toward adoption of a +/- grading system.However, fully one third of all schools currently use a whole-letter grading system. As these schools contemplate a change to their grading system it will be important for them to recognize the differing perceptions of benefits and costs that major stakeholders have. The major focus of this paper is the analysis of how faculty and student perceptions of the benefits of a +/- grading system differ. A recent study of business school faculty and students identified a substantial gap between the expectations and perceptions of the two groups with respect to grading and academic rigor [McKendall et al. , 2006].In addition, articles and editorials in student newspapers of universities considering adopting +/- grades suggest that this type of change in grading policies is always controversial. Such changes are typically proposed by the faculty and often opposed by students [Brown Daily Herald, 2006]. Students have noted that the use of a +/- system that does not include an A+ grade tends to lower the GPAs of the best students since they potentially have many current A grades that could become A minuses, but relatively few B and lower grades that could be raised by the plus grade [Storelli-Castro, 2006; Daily Athenaeum, 2006].Perhaps the clearest evidence of how students view +/- grading versus traditional grading occurs when students have a choice in a particular class. Humboldt State University made the +/- system optional. Student choices were tracked in six introduction to programming classes. Students overwhelmingly chose the traditional grading system over the +/- system, although students who chose the +/- system earned more pluses than minuses [Dixon, 2004]. Students from another university were quoted as arguing that the +/- system would increase the intrinsic value of an ‘A’ and help in identifying the very best students [Bressette, 2002].A survey of faculty documenting their actual use of a voluntary +/- grading system conducted at Ball State University provides evidence of variation in faculty support for such a grading system [Malone, Nelson & Nelson, 2000]. The survey asked graduate faculty how extensively they used the +/- system. Seventy-six percent indicated it was used considerably with assistant professors and those at the university for 1-4 years indicating the heaviest usage. Full professors use it less as did those with over 15 years service.The colleges that used it most were Architecture, Communication Sciences and the Humanities. The colleges that used it the least were Business, Life Sciences, Physical Sciences and Psychology. Business used the +/- system far less than any other unit in the University. No explanation was proffered for the differences b y college. The differing perceptions of faculty by disciplines were noted in another study that concluded â€Å"Faculty believed that the meaning of a grade varies more across disciplines than across institutions† [Ekstrom & Villegas, 1994]. While the studies noted above point to a variety of student and faculty attitudes toward +/grading, for the most part these studies have not examined the conceptual bases for student and faculty attitudes. There are at least two theoretical perspectives that may be useful in explaining these attitudes. The first is resistance to change theory and the second is expectancy theory. Resistance to change theory is quite intuitive and simply states that affected parties tend to resist change to their environment, work or otherwise.Literature describing reasons for resistance to change is well established and many of the major elements cited today were identified many years ago. A 1966 American Management Association keynote presentation identif ied a number of factors that cause people to resent and resist change [Burns 1966]. While this presentation dealt with the work environment, many of the factors identified also apply to the type of change dealt with here. Here in paraphrased form, is a partial list of the factors identified: 1.The change was poorly communicated and the parties involved do not understand the purpose of the change. 2. The parties involved lacked any involvement in planning the change. 3. The belief that the cost of the change is too high versus the potential benefits to be received from the change. 4. The pervasive belief that the current way of doing things is perfectly adequate. 5. The fear that the new system will fail. 6. The failure to consider the habit patterns of those affected by the change and the impact of the change on those habit patterns.In a more recent study, Goltz and Hietapelto [2002] found that employees (or students in our most likely case) resist change when it decreases their pow er or degree of control over stimuli affecting them. A second theoretical explanation of why evolution to a +/- grading system would be resisted can be found in expectancy theory. Expectancy theory, first conceptualized by Vroom [1964] and relying on the work of earlier scholars such as Tolman [1932], Rotter [1954], and Atkinson [1956], represents a cognitive approach to explaining human behavior.The models picture human beings as active, thinking, learning and predicting creatures. People learn to perform certain behaviors (or at least increase the chance of performing the behavior) that they expect would lead to positive outcomes. Consequently, humans are not just products of their environment but they are active in attempting to understand the environment in terms of threats and opportunities. For example, students may perceive a change to +/- grading as a threat. Some of the studies cited above suggest that +/- systems not including an A+ grade do tend to reduce the grades of th e best students.More generally, students may believe that +/- grades serve to reinforce the importance of grades, that lower overall GPA’s will result from the change and that higher levels of incremental study time will be necessary to prosper under a +/- system. The expectations of lower GPA’s, also carries with it graduate school acceptance concerns as well. Finally, the issue of +/- grading is much more personal to students as they rightly understand that the effect of the change applies directly to them. Faculty, on the other hand, do not take the change nearly as personally.Faculty may perceive greater flexibility and greater justice in grading with a +/- system and they might also expect that the +/system would be more motivational to students which would cause them to have a favorable attitude toward a +/- grading system. Survey Methodology This section describes a survey of student and faculty opinions about the introduction of a +/grading system at a mid-size d university in the Southwest. The university currently uses a whole-letter grading system with only the grades A, B, C, D, and F.The variant of +/- grading system being considered is one that adds grades of A-, B+, B-, and C+ to the set of potential grades with + grades being recorded at . 3 points higher than the base grade (e. g. 3. 3 for a B+) and – grades being recorded at . 3 points less than the base grade. 4 Respondents were asked whether they Favored, Opposed or Didn’t Know About or Care About a change to the grading system that would utilize the +/- grading scheme described above. Those who either Favored or Opposed were then asked to rate the strength of their opinions as either: care only slightly, care somewhat strongly or care very strongly.The results of these two questions were combined to produce a 7 point scale with values ranging from Very Strongly Support to Very Strongly Oppose (see Table 2). Respondents were also asked to describe the reasons for their support or opposition. Results of this open ended question were recorded and categorized with up to two reasons being recorded for each respondent. In addition respondents were asked to provide additional information that might be related to their views of the proposed system. Students were asked to indicate their class standing, their GPA, and the college of their major.Faculty members were asked to indicate their college and their length of service at the university. The survey of students opinions was collected by a group of Marketing students who randomly solicited responses from students entering and leaving commonly used buildings across the campus. The survey of faculty was collected on-line through an e-mail solicitation. Examination of the demographic distribution of responses suggests that the respondents are broadly representative of the students and faculty respectively.The 1433 student responses represent just over 10 percent of the count of student on the surveye d campus, while the 433 faculty responses represents over 50 percent of the eligible pool of faculty members. Hypothesized Relationships Based upon the literature reviewed in the previous sections, the following hypotheses about faculty and student attitudes toward the introduction of +/- grades are proposed. H1 – Faculty are more supportive of a +/- system than students. There is some evidence that a move to a +/- grading system may reduce the progression of grade inflation or perhaps reverse it.Therefore, faculty who are concerned about the effects of grade inflation would be expected to be supportive of a +/- grading system. Based upon expectancy theory. Both students and faculty may have resistance to change reasons for opposing the new system, but these reasons are likely to be stronger for students. Students may view any change in the grading system imposed by faculty as a potential threat to their GPA. Students also are likely to feel less involved in the change and ha ve less understanding of the purpose for the change.Thus, students would be expected to resist the change to a +/- grading system. H2 – Freshmen will be more supportive of +/- grades than upperclassmen. Class standing can also be expected to affect student responses to a change in grading system. Upperclassmen have more experience with the current grading system. They may feel that they have learned how to work within that system effectively to optimize their grades. Resistance to change tends to increase, as individuals have more experience with and more of a stake in an existing system.Thus, we hypothesize that freshmen will be more favorable toward +/- grades than upperclassmen. H3 – As a student’s GPA increases, support for +/- grades decreases. Since most +/- grading systems, including the one described to our respondents, do not include an A+ grade, expectancy theory suggests that students with very high GPAs have a rational reason to believe that +/- grad es are more likely to lower than raise their GPAs. For example, consider a student who has earned As in 80 percent of her/his courses and Bs in the other 20 percent leading to a 3. 8 GPA.For that student, the new grading scheme could only lower and not raise 80 percent of her grades while, for the remaining 20 percent, the grade could be either higher (a B+) or lower (a B-). On the other hand, since the system proposed in this survey does not include a C-, a student who has earned 80 percent Cs and 20 percent Bs under the whole-letter system has 80 percent of his/her grades that could only be increased by 5 the +/- grading system. Therefore, we hypothesize that students with higher GPAs will be less favorable toward the use of +/- grades than student with lower GPAs.H4 – As the average grade issued in a student’s college increases, support for +/grades decreases. The average grade in the college where a student is majoring can also be expected to affect responses to +/ - grading. Students in colleges where a very high proportion of As are currently given would have reason to fear that +/- grades would lower average GPAs issued in their unit. In a college with a 3. 2 average grade we might expect that 40 percent or more of the grades issued are As and that 40 percent of grades could not increase, but could only be lowered by the introduction of a typical +/grading system.By comparison, a college with a 2. 7 average grade would be expected to be issuing much fewer As, so that use of +/- grades could potentially either raise or lower nearly all of that unit’s grades. In addition, at least one empirical study [Bresette, 2002] found this type of effect as discussed above. For this reason, we hypothesize that students, in keeping with the predictions of expectancy theory, will be less favorable toward +/- grades the higher the average grade issued by their college. H5 -Faculty support for +/- grades will become less favorable as tenure at the sch ool increases.Faculty views of +/- grades might be expected to vary with the length of time that a faculty member has taught under the current grading system. As a faculty member’s experience with using the existing grading system increases, they, like students, may become comfortable with that system and therefore may be more resistant to change. In addition this type of effect was found in one of the empirical studies cited above [Malone, Nelson, & Nelson, 2000]. H6 – Faulty support for +/- grades will be more favorable as average grades issued in their college increase.The grading culture of the college in which a faculty member teaches may also impact their views of +/- grades. Faculty in colleges with high average grades might logically feel a greater need for additional grading options to better reflect student performance, whereas faculty in colleges with lower average grades might feel that the current system provides adequate assessment of student performance. On the other hand, since faculty are responsible for issuing grades, differences in current grading practices across colleges tend to reflect the grading preferences of the faculty in those colleges.Faculty in colleges with high average grades may be less likely to feel that grade inflation is an important issue. Thus, faculty support for +/- grades may be either stronger or weaker in colleges with high average grades. We believe the desire for additional grading options will be the stronger of the two effects. Survey Results In analyzing the survey results, we will first look to see whether student and faculty opinions about the use of +/- grades differ. Table 2 below shows summary data about student and faculty opinions. There is a strong divergence between student and faculty opinions about the proposed use of +/- grades.Over half of faculty respondents support +/- grades at least somewhat strongly while only 15 percent of students share this level of support. Almost half of the student respondents oppose +/- grades at least somewhat strongly, and many of the remaining students are relatively indifferent to, rather than supportive of, +/- grades. A Chi-squared test of the null hypothesis that the distribution of faculty opinions and student opinions do not differ has been conducted and the null hypothesis is rejected at the . 0001 level, indicating that there is a significant difference between the opinions of the two groups thus supporting hypothesis one. TABLE 2: Distribution of Opinions of Students and Faculty About Use of +/- Grades Students Count Percentage 64 4. 4% 148 10. 3% 145 10. 1% 289 20. 0% 129 8. 9% 332 23. 0% 336 23. 3% 1443 100. 0% 0. 0001 Faculty Count Percentage 126 27. 0% 123 26. 4% 48 10. 3% 26 5. 6% 18 3. 9% 57 12. 2% 68 14. 6% 466 100. 0% Support Very Strongly Support Somewhat Strongly Support Slightly Don’t Know / Care Oppose Slightly Oppose Somewhat Strongly Oppose Very Strongly Chi-Square test p-value The next set of tables provides an analysis of the degree to which student opinions about +/grades vary across different categories of students.First we look at the effect of class standing, that is, do views differ between freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors. Table 3 presents these results. The Chisquare test indicates that the distributions are significantly different and inspection of the table shows very clearly that sophomores and juniors tend to be most strongly opposed to use of +/- grades. Freshmen and seniors do not support use of +/- grades, but are less strong in their opposition and more likely to be indifferent or care only slightly about the grading alternatives.Sophomores and juniors may feel comfortable with the current grading system and be more reluctant to change, while freshmen have less familiarity with the existing system and seniors feel that they would not be personally affected by any change providing support for hypothesis two. TABLE 3: Student's Class Standing vs Student' s Opinion of Use of +/- Grades Freshman 5. 4% 11. 6% 13. 2% 22. 1% 7. 8% 19. 8% 20. 2% (258) 0. 0045 Sophomore 3. 2% 10. 3% 10. 6% 20. 1% 7. 1% 28. 0% 20. 6% (339) Junior 5. 3% 8. 2% 7. 4% 15. 6% 10. 3% 22. 5% 30. 7% (417) Senior 4. 1% 11. 5% 9. % 22. 1% 9. 9% 21. 9% 20. 7% (416) Support Very Strongly Support Somewhat Strongly Support Slightly Don't Know / Care Oppose Slightly Oppose Somewhat Strongly Oppose Very Strongly Students in Category Chi-Square test p-value Table 4 summarizes the distribution of opinions among students in different grade point average categories. Since, the +/- grading system does not include an A+, students with very high GPAs might rationally assume that they personally have more to lose (through A-s and perhaps B-s) than they have to gain (through B+s), and thus oppose the change.The results of Table 4 support this idea, the Chi-square test indicates that students with differing GPAs do differ in their views of +/- grades and students with higher GPAs ar e systematically more inclined to oppose using +/- grades thus supporting hypothesis three. Student respondents were asked to indicate the college of their major. Since the classification of colleges differs substantially across universities this information is not directly comparable to other 7 universities. However, it would be of interest to know whether the grading rigor of a student’s college affects student opinions about +/- grading.Students in colleges which currently give many high grades may feel that they have more to lose from the use of +/- grades than students in other colleges. The university in question has six colleges. Two of them have issued grades which, on average, were below a 2. 8 over the last 3 academic years, two issued grades which were on average between 2. 8 and 3. 1 over that period, and two issued grades which were on average above a 3. 1 for that period. TABLE 4: Student's GPA vs Student's Opinion of Use of +/- Grades 2. 00 or Less 8. 7% 8. 7% 13. 0% 39. 1% 0. 0% 13. 0% 17. % 100. 0% (23) 0. 0001 3. 50 or More 3. 5% 9. 8% 9. 5% 15. 0% 8. 1% 26. 6% 27. 5% 100. 0% (346) Support Very Strongly Support Somewhat Strongly Support Slightly Don’t Know / Care Oppose Slightly Oppose Somewhat Strongly Oppose Very Strongly Students in Category Chi-Square test p-value 2. 00-2. 49 5. 8% 9. 1% 9. 1% 33. 9% 10. 7% 16. 5% 14. 9% 100. 0% (121) 2. 50-2. 99 4. 3% 10. 6% 11. 1% 24. 7% 10. 6% 20. 1% 18. 5% 100. 0% (368) 3. 00-3. 49 4. 7% 10. 7% 9. 4% 15. 6% 8. 4% 24. 8% 26. 4% 100. 0% (572) Table 5 shows the distribution of student opinions across these categories.The Chi-square test for equal distribution does indicate that there is a significant difference in the distribution of responses. Opposition to +/- grades is strongest and support for them weakest among students in colleges issuing the highest average grades thus supporting hypothesis four. This result should be interpreted somewhat cautiously however, because of the natural co rrelation of average grade with the student’s own GPA examined in Table 4. That is, in general, students in colleges issuing high grades are more likely to have high GPAs.Next we examine how faculty opinions about +/- grades vary across different faculty categories. First the length of service at the university is examined. Much like the situation described for students, it might be hypothesized that faculty who have been at the institution for a long period of time will be less likely to support a change in a grading system that they are used to and comfortable in using. TABLE 5: Average GPA Issued in Student’s College vs Student’s Opinion of the Use of +/- Grades Average GPA Issued in Student’s College ;lt; 2. 2. 8-3. 1 ;gt;3. 1 6. 0% 3. 8% 2. 6% 11. 6% 10. 5% 8. 5% 9. 6% 11. 7% 7. 6% 19. 8% 22. 0% 16. 3% 9. 1% 10. 5% 5. 8% 24. 9% 19. 8% 27. 1% 19. 1% 21. 7% 32. 1% (450) 3. 1 21. 0% 28. 6% 31. 5% 35. 3% 21. 4% 23. 8% 11. 8% 11. 4% 8. 8% 2. 5% 5. 7% 7. 2 % 3. 4% 4. 3% 3. 9% 16. 8% 12. 1% 9. 9% 9. 2% 16. 4% 14. 9% (119) 0. 1329 (140) (181) Support Very Strongly Support Somewhat Strongly Support Slightly Don't Know / Care Oppose Slightly Oppose Somewhat Strongly Oppose Very Strongly Faculty in Category Chi-Square test p-valueThe reasons given by students and faculty members for supporting or opposing use of +/- grades are summarized in Tables 8 through 11. These tables were assembled by categorizing open-ended responses. In the case of respondents opposing +/- grades, there were a number of somewhat distinct 9 responses that were still logically related in an overall category. In those instances the overall number of occurrences in the general category is presented, but the distribution of responses within the subcategories is also presented.Table 8 summarizes reasons given by students supporting the use of +/- grades. The predominant reason given was that the system would provide grades that are more accurate and provide a more refin ed measure of performance. The second most prevalent reason – that +/- grades provide a more appropriate reward for the effort is somewhat related. Other rather frequent reasons given were the feeling that +/grades will raise GPAs and the belief that they will increase incentives for students to work hard in classes.In contrast to the 35 students who felt that +/- grades would raise GPAs, Table 9 indicates that 10 times as many students (352) believe that +/- grades will have a negative impact on grades. It seems clear that fear of lower grades was the most important factor in the overall negative view of students toward the +/- grading system. Just over 100 students indicated that they oppose +/- grades simply because they prefer the current system and either see no reason to change or do not like the new system.Students also criticized the new system as being overly complicated, increasing stress and placing too much focus on grades, requiring more work of them to receive t he same grades, and having a potential negative impact on employment, scholarships, and/or getting into graduate school. TABLE 8: Students' Reasons for Supporting +/- Grades Number of Comments Grades are More Accurate/Refined Provide More Appropriate Reward for the Effort Will Raise GPA's Increased Incentives to Work Harder Will increase the Reputation of the School Other Schools Use Them 145 43 35 21 7 5Reasons for faculty support for +/- grades are summarized in Table 10. The two most prevalent reasons cited closely parallel the top two reasons for support provided by students. First, that grades will be more accurate and refined under a +/- system (identical to the students’ top response) and second that they are fairer or better for the students (similar to the students’ response of – provides more appropriate reward for effort). Other prominent reasons for support included the belief that +/- grades will help combat grade inflation, and that they will impro ve student motivation. 0 TABLE 9: Students' Reasons for Opposing +/- Grades Number of Comments In SubIn Category Category 352 164 145 32 11 104 54 50 38 34 21 16 15 9 8 5 Negative Impact on Grades An â€Å"A† is an â€Å"A† (is difficult enough) It will lower my GPA Achieving 4. 0 is More Difficult Heard from ASU / Lower Grades Prefer Current System Like current System / no reason to change Don't like the change System is more Complicated Too much pressure / stress Will require more study time for the same grades Puts too much focus on grades Negative Impact on Scholarships/Employment/Grad.School Doesn't motivate me more Like high School/Grade School Changes School's Atmosphere TABLE 10: Faculty Reasons for Supporting +/- Grades Number of Comments Grades are More Accurate/Refined Grades are Fairer/Better for Students Will Combat Grade Inflation Will Improve Student Motivation Better / Easier for Faculty (Feel better about grades given) Will Improve Student Feedback 173 50 26 23 12 10 Reasons for opposition to +/- grades among faculty were varied (see Table 11). Most commonly cited is the idea that the change poses more costs than the benefits it provides.The next most frequent concern was the belief that grade challenges and arguments over grades would be increased since more students would be near a boundary between grades. Somewhat related to this are concerns that grades will be more difficult (physically and emotionally) for faculty to construct and compute and that the particular grade given will be arbitrary. Interestingly almost as many faculty believed that +/- grades would have no impact on or would increase grade inflation (17) as believed that +/- grades would reduce grade inflation (26). Finally, 10 faculty members expressed concern that +/- grades would overemphasize grades. 11TABLE 11: Faculty Members' Reasons for Opposing +/- Grades Number of Comments In SubIn Category Category 39 14 9 9 7 24 21 17 17 10 7 10 6 4 3 2 Cost versus Be nefit Current System is OK (no need for change) No Benefit to Change No Benefit to Students High cost to change with Little Benefit Will Increase Grade Challenges/Arguments Grading Will be More Difficult for faculty Grades are More Arbitrary Grade Inflation Impact Will Encourage Grade Inflation Won't Reduce Grade Inflation Overemphasis on Grades Emphasizes Grades versus Learning Adds to Student Anxiety over Grades Not used by Employers / recruiters May Hurt Student Grad School chancesConclusions This study examined the extent of use of +/- grades in AACSB accredited business schools by collecting data from 99 such schools. Sixty percent of the schools use some variant of a +/- grading system, 32 percent use only whole-letter grading and the remainder use a single intermediate grade. A survey of faculty and student opinions about a move to +/- grading at a mid-sized university in the Southwest provides a number of interesting insights. There is a strong divergence between student and faculty opinions.Over half of faculty respondents support +/- grades at least somewhat strongly as compared to only 15 percent of students. Nearly half of student respondents oppose the change at least somewhat strongly. Students and faculty supporting the +/- grading system cited very similar reasons for their support – the belief that grades will be more accurate and refined and the belief that grades will be fairer or better for students. Some students also indicated the change would provide incentive to work harder. Some faculty felt it would combat grade inflation and improve student motivation.Students who oppose the change believe there will be a negative impact on GPA’s (352 students believe this versus 35 who believe grades would improve). The next most prevalent student comment was that they prefer the current system and see no need for a change. Faculty who opposed the change commented most frequently that there is little benefit from the change and next th at it will increase grade challenges or make grading more difficult for faculty. Opposition to the change was strongest and support for +/- grades was weakest among students in colleges issuing the highest average grades.In addition, sophomores and juniors and students with higher GPAs tend to be most strongly opposed. This suggests that student opposition to a +/- grading system could be reduced by implementing it in a phased manner (starting with the freshman class) and by finding a way to incorporate a grade of A+. In addition, resistance to change theory suggests that it is important that the reasons why the use of +/- grades might be in the best interest of students be effectively communicated throughout the process and that students groups should be involved early in any proposal to institute +/- grades.

Definition and Examples of Theme-Writing

Definition and Examples of Theme-Writing Theme-writing refers to the conventional writing assignments (including five-paragraph essays) required in many composition classes since the late-19th century. Also called school writing. In his book The Plural I: The Teaching of Writing (1978), William E. Coles, Jr., used the term themewriting  (one word) to characterize empty, formulaic writing that is not meant to be read but corrected. Textbook authors, he said, present writing as a trick that can be played, a device that can be put into operation . . . just as one can be taught or learn to run an adding machine, or pour concrete. Examples and Observations: The use of themes has been maligned and vilified in the history of writing instruction. They have come to represent what was bad about the Harvard model, including an obsession with correcting the themes in red ink, but the womens colleges typically used themes to get students writing regular essays based on common topics. . . . Theme writing, as David Russell notes in Writing in the Academic Disciplines, 1870-1990, continued to be a model for required composition courses at small liberal arts colleges much longer than it did in the larger universities, in large part because the universities could no longer keep up with the labor-intensive practice of having students write multiple essays over the course of a semester or year.(Lisa Mastrangelo and Barbara LEplattenier, Is It the Pleasure of This Conference to Have Another?: Womens Colleges Meeting and Talking About Writing in the Progressive Era. Historical Studies of Writing Program Administration, ed. by B. LEplattenier and L. Mast rangelo. Parlor Press, 2004) Camille Paglia on Essay Writing as a Form of Repression[T]he present concentration on essay writing at the heart of the humanities curriculum is actually discriminatory against people of other cultures and classes. I think its a game. Its very, very obvious to me, having been teaching for so many years as a part-timer, teaching factory workers and teaching auto mechanics and so on, the folly of this approach. You teach them how to write an essay. Its a game. Its a structure. Speak of social constructionism! Its a form of repression. I do not regard the essay as its presently constituted as in any way something that came down from Mount Sinai brought by Moses.(Camille Paglia, The M.I.T. Lecture.  Sex, Art, and American Culture. Vintage, 1992)English A at HarvardHarvards standard, required composition course was English A, first given in sophomore year and then, after 1885, moved to the first year. . . . In 1900-01 writing assignments included a mix of daily themes, which were brief two- or three-paragraph sketches, and more extended fortnightly themes; topics were up to the student and thus varied widely, but the dailies usually asked for personal experience while the longer ones covered a mix of general knowledge.(John C. Brereton, Introduction. The Origins of Composition Studies in the American College, 1875-1925. Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1995) Theme Writing at Harvard (Late 19th Century)When I was an undergraduate at Harvard our instructors in English composition endeavored to cultivate in us a something they termed The daily theme eye. . . .Daily themes in my day had to be short, not over a page of handwriting. They had to be deposited in a box at the professors door not later than ten-five in the morning. . . . And because of this brevity, and the necessity of writing one every day whether the mood was on you or not, it was not always easyto be quite modestto make these themes literature, which, we were told by our instructors, is the transmission through the written word, from writer to reader, of a mood, an emotion, a picture, an idea.(Walter Prichard Eaton, Daily Theme Eye. The Atlantic Monthly, March 1907)The Chief Benefit of Theme-Writing (1909)The chief benefit derived from theme-writing lies probably in the instructors indication of errors in the themes and his showing how these errors are to be corrected; for by these means the student may learn the rules that he is inclined to violate, and thus may be helped to eliminate the defects from his writing. Hence it is important that the errors and the way to correct them be shown to the student as completely and clearly as possible. For instance, suppose that a theme contains the sentence I have always chosen for my companions people whom I thought had high ideals. Suppose the instructor points out the grammatical fault and gives the student information to this effect: An expression such as he says, he thinks, or he hears interpolated in a relative clause does not affect the case of the subject of the clause. For example, The man who I thought was my friend deceived me is correct; who is the subject of was my friend; I thought is a parenthesis which does not affect the case of who. In your sentence, whom is not the object of thought, but the subject of had high ideals; it should therefore be in the nominative case. From this information the stud ent is likely to get more than the mere knowledge that the whom in this particular case should be changed to who; he is likely to learn a principle, the knowledge of whichif he will remember itwill keep him from committing similar errors in future.But the theme from which one sentence is quoted above contains fourteen other errors; and the forty-nine other themes which the instructor is to hand back to-morrow morning contain among them about seven hundred and eighty-five more. How shall the instructor, as he indicates these eight hundred errors, furnish the information called for by each one? Obviously he must use some kind of shorthand.(Edwin Campbell Woolley, The Mechanics of Writing. D.C. Heath, 1909)